Section 2: Theories and Models of Learning and Instruction

Item 1 Reflection:

Basically, epistemology is the study of knowledge and the instructional methods or theories of learning discussed in our course textbook are concepts or principles of learning set forth by psychologists and/or researchers. I envision epistemology as being similar to an umbrella that is overarching and provides cover to anything underneath without bias. I envision instructional methods or theories as being among those “anythings” that an umbrella provides cover to.

Chapter 4 of our textbook provides an overview of the concepts or principles of learning, although differing, which are foundational to the field of instructional design, a systematic process that helps to develop education and training programs. Regardless of their differences, their underlying assumption is that instruction will bring about learning.

The decade between 1960 and 1970 brought forth Behavior Learning and Cognitive Information Processing. Psychologist B. F. Skinner advocated that learning is focused on behavior, thus the name Behavior Learning Theory.  This theory contributed to concepts such as reinforcement, feedback, behavior objectives and practice. An assumption of the theory is that learning can be understood, explained and predicted entirely on the basis of observable events.  As the reading states, a leaner is apt to continue utilizing a strategy of acquiring information on the World Wide Web if the strategy proves successful for the learner. Both Behavior Learning and Cognitive Information Processing, a view that arose among psychologists, regarded the environment as playing an important role in learning; however, Cognitive Information Processing held an assumption that internal processes within the learner explained learning. Learning is occurring mostly from the outside in. The leaner receives

information from the environment, transforms it in various ways and acquires knowledge that is subsequently stored in memory. This theory is comprised of a multi-memory system of learning, namely, sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. In this theory, information passes through stages and ultimately through processes such as attention, encoding and retrieval.  I equate this with possessing prior knowledge, a necessary component of learning.

The era between the 1960s and 1980s brought about Gagne’s Theory of Instruction which, together with the two aforementioned theories of learning, formed the foundation on which instructional design was founded. Gagne’s theory provided guidance for designing learning environments that facilitate the acquisition of desired skills, knowledge and attitudes. His taxonomy of learning included three domains of learning, cognitive, affective and psychomotor, and five major categories of learning, including verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills. The categories of learning stemmed from the assumption that learners require different conditions for learning, which stands to reason since learning to ride a bicycle (a motor skill) is different from learning the multiplication table (verbal information).

Providing other ways of thinking about learning are the newer theories, such as Schema Theory, Cognitive Load Theory, Situation Learning and Constructivism. Schema and Cognitive Load Theories both focus on the role of prior knowledge in learning new knowledge and skills. Situated Learning is regarded as a work-in-progress theory. It relies more on social and cultural determinants of learning than it does on individual psychology. It emphasizes that learning occurs through a learner’s participation in the practices of the community. In Situated Learning, learners engage in authentic practices of problem solving in realistic, simulated programs. Situated Learning reminds me of project-based learning.  The Constructivism Theory is a collection of views sharing a fundamental assumption of learning. Constructivists believe that reality is constructed by individuals and social groups based on their experiences with and interpretations of the world. In other words, learning is achieved from the inside out. As in Situated Learning, Constructivism has influenced a change in the instructional field and emphasized a shift in instructional communication, resulting in more emphasis being placed on practice-based learning, such as simulations and project, inquiry or problem-based activities. In essence these aforementioned theories and methods of learning contribute to the vast epistemology literature.

Item 2 Reflection:

A contextualist epistemology is a way of explaining that we do or we do not know something. In any manner of explaining it, we are correct.  For example, we know a restaurant stays open 24-hours but unless we know for sure because we’ve inquired inside and the restaurant stays open for the duration of the time, we can say it is open 24 hours. We can also say that we do not know that the restaurant is open 24 hours if we do not know for certain even though we frequent the restaurant and it normally is open 24 hours. Either manner of responding is correct.

As the textbook explains, positivists believe that knowledge exists independent of individuals and absolute truths exist in the world and relativists believe that knowledge is constructed by each individual and that no absolute truths exist in the world. With the directive that contextualism falls somewhere between the two stances, then I feel contextualism sometimes agrees with positivists and sometimes agrees with relativists, depending on the situation or context.

Social constructivism allows for learning to occur in communities or groups where learners collaborate and support each other working towards a common goal. A behaviorist constructivism approach to learning and instruction rewards individual learners and is a means by which to progress to higher levels of learning. Behaviorists sometimes change their behaviors in order to become rewarded for their learning or to progress in their learning. The radical constructivists’ approach to learning and instruction, on the other hand, leaves the learner fending for themselves, so to speak, in that learning comes from within. The learner’s instructor can only hope that the learner is grasping the knowledge of the instruction based on the leaner’s prior knowledge or experiences.

Item 3 Reflection:

In problem solving, the behaviorist learner would come to realize that if the learner solves the problem, the learner will be rewarded, resulting in the learner continuing to use those strategies learned from problem-solving because it yielded successful results. The constructivist would collaborate with and support his/her peers in problem solving. Constructivists bring a multitude of perspectives into problem-solving.

From the perspective of the behaviorist, the learner is observed prior to problem-solving to determine performance changes that could lead to the consequences, or possible reward.  No prior knowledge to assist with problem-solving makes it difficult to proceed. The problem-solving process for behaviorists is teacher directed. The constructivist perspective, on the other hand, is learner centered where the instructor merely facilitates the problem-solving process. Collaborating with others and bringing in multitudes of perspectives makes for an easier problem-solving process.

I would opt to be a constructivist for I feel there is more capability for learner motivation for constructivists than for behaviorists. Often times peers motivate peers in constructivist learning. I feel behaviorists have a difficult time already just trying to proceed in their tasks. Rewards are their motivation. If they do not receive rewards, they are not motivated.